FACTORS INFLUENCING THE USE OF METHAMPHETAMINE BY DENTAL PATIENTS IN THE UNITED STATES anorexia , and dental carries . 1 , 33 3.4 . Pharmacology The lipid soluble nature of methamphetamine assists its rapid movement across the blood brain barrier initiating powerful neurocognitive reactions . Not only does methamphetamine cause an extreme rush of pleasure by releasing dopamine and norepinephrine into nerve terminals , it also inhibits the natural reuptake process , resulting lasting effects of the drug . 1 , 31 , 34 This process explains the lengthy half-life of methamphetamine which is 10 and 12 hours , which substantially longer than other stimulants such as cocaine (~ 90 minutes ). 1 , 30 , 31 Rothman et al . conducted in-vitro studies finding that methamphetamine has the potential to release twice the amount of noradrenaline as dopamine , and 60 times the amount of noradrenaline release than serotonin . 35 The exponentially powerful effects of methamphetamine give insight to the extremely addictive nature of the drug . Prolonged use of methamphetamine has been shown to cause chronic health issue . After repetitive drug use , nerve terminals experience neurotoxicity caused by oxidative stress and neuro-inflammation resulting from increased intra and extracellular concentration of dopamine . 31 , 34 , 36 The deterioration of these terminals and depleted supply of dopamine impairs the brain ’ s ability to naturally feel pleasure , resulting anhedonia . As a result , risks for methamphetamine abuse greatly rises as individuals increase frequency of use , dosage , and alter routes of administration in attempts to reach previous highs . Once common routes of methamphetamine administration such as smoking and oral ingestion fail to yield desired effects , methamphetamine users often shift to intravenously injections because of the superior
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bioavailability of the drug in the body ’ s system . The elevated concentration and increased potency of intravenous administration accelerates the decline of dopomergenic synapsis while exasperating physiological effects . 30 , 33 , 37 Long-term recovery outcomes are adversely affected by intravenous use due to the invasive effects throughout the body . A 3-year follow up study of methamphetamine users in recovery found that individuals who injected the drug reported significantly more severe symptoms of depression than smokers and intranasal users . 38 While dosing characteristics vary between methamphetamine users , binge episodes consisting of persistent and excessive administration of the drug typically last for several days . 30 During binge episodes , individuals often suffer from anxiety , hyper-arousal , and insomnia . 1 . Methamphetamine users often engage in detrimental personal health practices by consuming sugary food / drinks , and neglecting personal hygiene particularly during
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binge episodes . Current research shows a strong connection between methamphetamine use and a litany of psychological issues that often stem from decrease neurological functioning . Methamphetamine damages neurological processes and is expressed via maladaptive mood , behavior and cognitions . Common psychological effects of methamphetamine include hallucinations , delusions , paranoia , psychomotor agitation , while mood disorders typically manifest as depression ,
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anxiety , and in some cases , bipolar disorders . Emerging research has been able to explain how the neurological effects of methamphetamine inform the psychological pathology associated with the drug . Scott et al . published an extensive meta-analysis of the neurological effects of methamphetamine use . The review incorporated 18 studies consisting of a total of 951 participants , including 487 participants with a history of methamphetamine use , and 464 normal comparison participants . The meta-analysis aimed to identify the regions of the brain , and neurological functioning that were altered due to methamphetamine use . Scott et al . found that significant deficits were associated to neurological processes related to frontostriatal and limbic circuits . The presence of methamphetamine to these regions of the brain cause cognitive deficits to episodic memory , and executive functioning . 33 Several studies within the meta-analysis highlight the harmful effects of methamphetamine use to episodic memory . Individuals who are dependent on the drug are unable to consciously recall experiences and negative symptoms associated with prior methamphetamine use . Diminished episodic memory may be a reason that the individual repeats past mistakes associated with their drug use . 31 , 33 Another finding of the metaanalysis was that executive dysfunction is closely related with methamphetamine use . Participants who were dependent on methamphetamine show impairments in executive functioning involving inhibition , decision making , delayed gratification , and attention . 31 , 33 Other neurological issues associated with methamphetamine addiction include psycho-motor delays and verbal-learning deficits . 37 Debilitated cognitive processes such as working memory and decision-making increase the likelihood for methamphetamine dependency , risky behaviors , and poorer overall health outcomes . Methamphetamine use has disastrous effects on the brain and body , yet there is evidence to suggest that if an individual can work towards recovery , they have the potential to have positive health outcomes . Research shows that the brain is extremely resilient . Individuals who are recovering from methamphetamine addiction have shown significant decrease of psychological symptoms , and increase in cognitive functioning . In a study involving 34 methamphetamine participants in recovery , Bagheri et al . found that after a just three weeks of abstinence , participants reported a decrease in symptoms of depression , and increase in quality of life . 40 Research indicates that not only mood disorders may be alleviated , but also neurocognitive performance has been shown to increase when in recovery . Several studies on participants in recovery found that abstinent individuals were able to improve neurological functioning close to baseline standards . 37 , 41 Individuals who were in recovery , and / or had achieved abstinence from methamphetamine use displayed marked improvements in assessments
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