Popular Culture Review Vol. 10, No. 2, August 1999 | Page 118

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Popular Culture Review

literature thus made its appearance at least by the 7th century A.D. and the new
philosophy, literature, and art encouraged devotional theism that already had a
long history on the Indian soil. The ideas and feelings expressed in the devotional
philosophy, literature, and art were not new, but compared to the earlier theistic
expressions, they were closer to the deeper feelings of the common folk and had
considerable appeal for them. The devotional hymns, in particular, had a signifi
cant impact on the lives of the common folk and Bhakti songs could be routinely
heard ever5rwhere and at all times, diligently hummed and sung by the masses.
The great stories of the traditional past, mythological backgrounds, and exhorta
tions to virtuous conduct also found a place in the works of the saint-poet-philoso
phers and these were presented for the masses in vernacular hymns all over India.^
As it was to satisfy the emergent philosophical and artistic needs of the
common folk, the new philosophy, literature, and art was also a part of the ongoing
revolt against increased formalism, ritualism, and corruption in the Hindu tradi
tion. In the Upanishadic period, sacrifices had already yielded ethical and moral
problems and people had a growing urge for other forms of knowledge and prac
tices, instead of the Vedic rituals. They developed a particular fascination for de
votional theism and the guardians of the Vedic tradition were concerned about this
development. They knew that the rise in the urge for devotional theism was partly
due to prevalent flaws in the Vedic tradition and practices and partly due to other
non-Vedic and non-Aryan cultural influences of the times. Of the three main paths
for spiritual uplifting and attainment of Moksha (salvation) in the Indian Hindu
tradition, Jnana — the path of knowledge — was too dry and hard for the masses,
and Karma — the path of daily rituals and religious performances — was often too
cumbersome. Compared to these two, the path of Bhakti (devotion and devotional
service) was easier and it emphasized only unconditional love, surrender, rever
ence, and devotion toward the Supreme Personality of Godhead and His different
incarnations and representations. This path was concerned about neither the theo
logical intricacies in the Hindu tradition nor the intricate ritualistic observances. It
became quite popular with the masses. The masses also found the Personal Su
preme and His different incarnations and representations (as compared to the Su
preme Abstraction or Abstract Brahman — the conception that God is formless) to
be more loving and lovable and all-merciflil, all-powerful, and all-knowing. Through
exuberant practices, a Bhakta found an easier and more practical way to day-today happiness, a protected living, and attainment of the goal of Moksha. The Bhakti
sentiments were expressed toward the Supreme Personality of Godhead, His male
and female incarnations and representations, other heavenly bodies, and even many
animate and inanimate objects attributed to have spiritual powers and impacting
the lives of the people. In the practical sense, however, it did not matter whether it
was the Supreme Person, His incarnations and representations, other heavenly