health impacts of climate change
is limited, there are findings that
suggest significant health costs
among our most fragile popula-
tions (Anderko, Schenk, Huffling,
& Chalupka, 2016).
Climate change affects food
production around the world
with changes in temperature,
water availability, and air quality.
Traditional crops face new chal-
lenges and, in some cases, have
responded with less nutritious
outcomes, decreased yield, and
accumulated toxins (Ainsworth &
Ort, 2010). Environmental stress
may cause bio-physical reactions
in plants that can harm humans,
referred to as the “poison chalice”
(Ainsworth & Ort, 2010). The
most significant of these impacts
are from heat stress, resilient
pests, and expanding ranges for
diseases.
While water shortages are driven
by agriculture around the world,
other factors include industrial,
energy, and domestic use, which
is only 10% (IPCC, 2014). Snow
covers have decreased in the
northern hemisphere, including
Pennsylvania, affecting both wa-
ter quantity and quality.
An increase in extreme heat days
impacts heat-related illnesses in
humans in many ways, but with
increased severity in those who
are young, elderly, chronically ill,
and impoverished. Extreme heat
events are responsible for many
deaths related to heat exhaustion
and heat stroke. These numbers
are expected to increase as the
frequency, duration, and mag-
nitude of extreme heat events
increase with warming trends.
Issue 73, 2 2018 Pennsylvania Nurse 18
Cardiovascular and respiratory
conditions are exacerbated by
heat. In addition, extreme heat
waves contribute to alcohol and
substance abuse and issues such
as homicide, suicide, and physical
abuse (Doherty & Clayton, 2011).
Changes in regional climate have
expanded the ranges of vector
and water borne diseases. Infec-
tious diseases, such as bacteria
and viruses, are influenced by
climate change. Vectors for infec-
tious diseases, including mosqui-
tos and ticks, are reported to have
longer seasons for reproduction,
mature faster, and may allow
faster incubation of the viruses
that are carried. Mosquitos are
a prominent vector for tropical
diseases, such as Zika, which con-
tinues to spread. In Pittsburgh,
the mosquito season was reported
to increase from 81 to 111 days
(2006-2015). Lyme disease has
significantly increased in North
America, including an increased
incidence in Pennsylvania (CDC,
2018). Warmer air also holds more
water, increasing the spread of
waterborne diseases. A science-
based model has been developed
to predict the impact of increas-
ing temperatures on the severity
of diseases mediated by parasites
(Kirk et al., 2018).
Air pollution is influenced by the
burning of fossil fuels in energy
production. Across the world,
air pollution kills more than 6.5
million people annually (IEA,
2016). Small temperature changes
can increase ground-level ozone.
Pollen levels are also increasing.
Air pollution and increased pollen
levels exacerbate the incidence
of allergy and asthma. In Penn-
sylvania and other states with
unconventional gas extraction,
the rapid expansion of shale gas
development has impacted the
environment and human health.
In 2016, the Pennsylvania Medi-
cal Society supported a “mora-
torium on new shale gas drilling
and hydraulic fracturing and is
urging the state to establish an
independent health registry and
start studying fracking’s public
health impacts” (Hopey, 2016,
para. 1). Scientists also reported
that oil and gas exploration-
related methane emissions offset
some of the U.S. carbon dioxide
emission reductions (Helmig et
al., 2016). Methane reacts with
ozone in a response that results in
the production of CO2 and water
vapor. Oxidation of methane is a
main source of water vapor in the
upper stratosphere. The nation’s
increased fracking activity may
not be solely responsible for the
increase in global atmospheric
methane. However, the U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency
(EPA) notes that emissions are
believed to be higher than re-
ported because industry data
is self-reported. It also affects
ethane and higher hydrocarbons
and toxins. The science for these
complex interactions is still devel-
oping (Helmig et al., 2016).
A PERSONAL
ADVOCACY PLAN
Advocacy is the act or process of
supporting a cause or proposal.
Environmental advocacy allows
an individual to use their voice
to support legislation for the
preservation, restoration, and/
or improvement of the natural