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LEADERSHIP states. In West African states, perception of leadership competencies demonstrated particularly high marks for resourcefulness; however, their metrics for the nuts-and-bolts skill of “leading employees” was quite low.12 In southern African states, the favorable attribute of decisiveness placed in the top half of leader attributes, whereas self-awareness placed near the bottom.13 For U.S. leaders, knowledge of these dynamics and others is critical to crafting effective strategies to meet partner needs. In addition to these culturally ingrained leadership attributes, there are existing military doctrines that cannot be easily overridden. For the U.S. military, well-intentioned initiatives that nonetheless run counter to doctrinal processes inculcated in our African partners can create cognitive dissonance and challenge their ability to learn. Worse yet, partner resentment or the frustrated abandonment of U.S. techniques could undermine the strength of the partnership itself. A great number of resources exist for U.S. leaders to consult prior to engaging with African partners. One such resource is the Africa Center for Strategic Studies at Fort McNair, Washington, D.C. The center provides a wealth of in-depth, country- and region-specific research to inform involved parties on the numerous institutional and environmental issues facing leaders in the partner country.14 The Ike Skelton Combined Arms Research Library of the U.S. Army Combined Arms Center, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, is a resource that combines its archival journal material with tutorials on how to utilize a variety of freely available military databases.15 Finally, the African Leadership Centre at King’s College London has extensive monographs, working papers, studies, and podcasts devoted to the study of leadership on the African continent.16 These resources, in concert with a mindset oriented toward optimizing the many existing positive African leader attributes, form the foundation of a constructive and mutually rewarding connection. African militaries fill a spectrum of roles and operate in a range of dynamic environments. This demands an adaptive spirit familiar to those in the U.S. military growing accustomed to an expanding range of missions around the globe. Approached correctly, African and U.S. militaries can adapt to face our respective challenges side by side. Success in these partnerships lies not in modeling African militaries in the United States’ likeness, but in understanding, leveraging, and complementing our distinct strengths. Notes 1. Claire Felter, “Why Does Africa Have So Many Languages?,” Christian Science Monitor, 21 April 2015, accessed 12 September 2016, http://www.csmonitor.com/Science/Science-Notebook/2015/0421/Why-does-Africa-have-so-many-languages; Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, “Africa,” accessed 12 September 21016, http://www.nupi.no/en/Our-research/Regions/ Africa. 2. Robert House, Mansour Javidan, Paul Hanges, and Peter Dorfman, “Understanding Cultures and Implicit Leadership Theories Across the Globe: An Introduction to Project Globe,” Journal of World Business 37, no. 1 (2002): 3–10, accessed 19 August 2016, http://www.thunderbird.edu/wwwfiles/sites/globe/pdf/jwb_globe_ intro.pdf. 3. Ibid., 9. 4. Center for Creative Leadership (CCL), “Leader Effectiveness and Culture: The GLOBE Study,” CCL website, 2014, accessed 19 August 2016, http://www.ccl.org/leadership/pdf/assessments/globestudy.pdf. GLOBE researchers utilize geographic areas rather than specific countries as the primary means of organizing their research. The two geographic areas relevant to the African continent are “The Middle East,” which includes North Africa, and “Sub-Saharan Africa.” 5. Ibid, 7. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., 6. The study’s authors distinguish between white and black respondents in South Africa as a means of controlling for the pronounced Western-European and African attitudinal split there. MILITARY REVIEW  November-December 2016 8. Ibid. 9. Henri Boré, “Cultural Awareness and Irregular Warfare: French Army Experience in Africa,” Military Review 86, no. 4 ( July-August 2006): 111, accessed 22 August 2016, http://usacac. army.mil/CAC2/MilitaryReview/Archives/English/MilitaryReview_20060831_art016.pdf. 10. Ibid. 11. Joseph Soeters and Audrey Van Ouytsel, “The Challenge of Diffusing Military Professionalism in Africa,” Armed Forces & Society 40, no. 2 (2014): 252–68. This is a pronounced difference, as expeditionary and territorial armies are manned, trained, and equipped according to very different sets of needs. There is also the dual role that African militaries often fill of military-police force, yet another factor for Western militaries to account for when squaring their own orientation with that of their African partners. 12. Regina Eckert and Simon Rweyongoza, “Leadership Development in Africa: A Focus on Strengths,” Center for Creative Leadership white paper (Greensboro, NC: CCL, 2010). 13. Ibid. 14. Africa Center for Strategic Studies website, accessed 22 August 2016, http://africacenter.org/. 15. Ike Skelton Combined Arms Research Library, last modified 13 July 2016, accessed 22 August 2016, http://usacac.army. mil/organizations/cace/carl. 16. African Leadership Centre website, accessed 22 August 2016, http://www.africanleadershipcentre.org. 71