Policy and Complex Systems
of Facts and Figures , and Psychological Warfare Division of the US Army ( Farr et al ., 2006 ). Like the elite promoter of democratic propaganda , the policy scientist for democracy of Harold Lasswell emerged as an elite promoter and defender of democracy in the name of human dignity ( Farr et al ., 2006 ). Critics of this argued that elite decision makers on behalf of democracy was contradictory as how can one be a proponent of technical policy expertise on behalf of democracy and yet not recognize the will of the majority may be a better or more appropriate arbitrator of policy decisions ( Farr et al ., 2006 ; Gewirth , 1949 ).
Embodied in Lasswell ’ s democracy shaped by the elites was a non-complexity , linear , mechanistic , and unidirectional seven phase cyclical decision making process ( Figure 1 ) ( Lasswell , 1963 ). The intelligence phase consisted of information that was considered by public decision makers . The promoting phase included the use of propaganda and argument to shape the final policy outcome . The prescribing phase is where the policy is formulated and enacted as a law or constitutional provision . The invoking phase consists of violation and prosecutions for violating the law . The application phase includes the continuing and routine operations of public agencies in implementing the law . The appraisal phase
is evaluations of how adequately the law has been upheld . The terminating phase is when public policies meet their original goals and become institutionalized in society ( Lasswell , 1963 ). This policy cycle then can and often does repeat itself as new problems or politics related to a policy area like education policy arises .
Second Wave in US Policy Making
By the 1970s , several policy scholars adopted and refined Lasswell ’ s linear and unidirectional policy cycle model ( Anderson , 1975 ; Deleon , 1999 ; Jones , 1970 ; Jones , 1977 ; May & Wildavsky , 1978 ). The updated linear policy cycle ( Figure 2 ) includes problems being recognized and understood , government formulation , and enactment , implementation of a policy by public agencies , policy evaluations , and problem resolution or change ( Anderson , 1975 ; Deleon , 1999 ; Jones , 1977 ; May and Wildavsky , 1978 ). In the problem identification phase , policy issues are defined and perceived . In addition to legislation formulation and enactment , there is appropriation of funds for public programs . Public agency implementation can take a variety of forms such as law enforcement or development of rules that interpret a statute to implement a public program . Policy evaluation includes measurements of
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