Journal on Policy & Complex Systems Volume 1, Number 2, Fall 2014 | Page 75

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positions . A rigorous comparison process using scenario analysis can build consensus about the best options , which encourages adoption ( as was done in the Rio Grande water planning model ( Tidwell et al ., 2004 ) described above ).
Finally , games or computer simulations can be used to train practitioners by providing faster than real time experience or experience without risk . A familiar example is flight simulators , which can be used to practice landings and other common skills for less experienced pilots , and also to train for emergencies and other rare situations .
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To the extent that functionality is

delivered by the way in which the modeling process is conducted , desired functionality does not constrain the particular modeling technique . Nevertheless , there are some implications for the broad type of model as some functionality does rely on the model format , particularly in the Use phase . Generally , communication functions require the model to be accessible and comprehensible to non-modelers , which is easier with diagrams and games than with mathematical and computer models . On the other hand , forecasting and options comparison are particular strengths of mathematical or computer-based techniques because of their detailed specification of relationships .
Diagrams are widely used to present information in an accessible way . For a pictorial representation to be a diagram ( as compared to a photograph or a graph for example ), it must depict key parts and explain the relationships between them . A wide variety of diagrams therefore meet the definition of models . These models are essentially structured text to describe the important concepts within a system and map how they relate to each other . The importance of diagrams to organize information for communication is demonstrated by their widespread use in textbooks and other education materials . They are suitable for those problems where the most important functionality is knowledge elicitation , organization , or transfer , and also for exploring unknowns .
The variety of ways in which diagrams can support policy development is exemplified by the use of Soft Systems Methodology to engage a broad range of stakeholders in identifying policy options for cleaning up the heavily polluted Cooum River in India ( Bunch , 2003 ). Soft Systems Methodology ( SSM ) is a formal process with several elements , including development of a ‘ Rich Text Picture ’— a particular type of diagram that combines different perspectives about a single issue ( Checkland & Poulter , 2006 ). The Rich Text Picture developed during a four day workshop allowed participants to move from a narrow focus on the river to develop more holistic proposals that significantly differed from previous failed initiatives , such as awareness campaigns rather than simply dredging . It also provided input to the design of a simulation model .
Games approach knowledge and communication functions in a different way . Knowledge is elicited directly , then organized , and encoded in the game rules . While diagrams make the organized knowledge available by displaying or distributing it directly , games communicate indirectly . Players respond to the knowledge represented in the rules by taking actions in the game and responding to the consequences . This provides knowledge consolidation , the unknowns of exploration , and training functions .
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