How to Coach Yourself and Others Beware of Manipulation | Page 59

Where a proposition is claimed to be true or good solely because many people believe it to be so,
arguing that because "everyone" supposedly thinks or does something, it must be right. E.g., "Everyone
thinks undocumented aliens ought to be kicked out!" Sometimes also includes Lying with Statistics,
e.g. “Surveys show that over 75% of Americans believe Senator Smith is not telling the truth. For
anyone with half a brain, that conclusively proves he’s a dirty liar!”
Appeal to action
We Have to Do Something: The dangerous contemporary fallacy that in moments of crisis one must do
something, anything, at once, even if it is an overreaction, is totally ineffective or makes the situation
worse, rather than "just sitting there doing nothing." (E.g., "Banning air passengers from carrying nail
clippers probably does nothing to deter potential hijackers, but we have to do something to respond to
this crisis!") This is often a corrupted argument from pathos.
Appeal to equality
Where an assertion is deemed true or false based on an assumed pretence of equality.
Association fallacy (guilt by association)
Arguing that because two things share a property they are the same
Appeal to accomplishment
Where an assertion is deemed true or false based on the accomplishments of the proposer.
Appeal to Closure
The contemporary fallacy that an argument, standpoint, action or conclusion must be accepted, no
matter how questionable, or else the point will remain unsettled and those affected will be denied
"closure." This refuses to recognize the truth that some points will indeed remain unsettled, perhaps
forever. (E.g., "Society would be protected, crime would be deterred and justice served if we sentence
you to life without parole, but we need to execute you in order to provide some sense of closure.") (See
also "Argument from Ignorance," "Argument from Consequences.")
Appeal to consequences (argumentum ad consequentiam)
The conclusion is supported by a premise that asserts positive or negative consequences from some
course of action in an attempt to distract from the initial discussion. The major fallacy of arguing that
something cannot be true because if it were the consequences would be unacceptable. (E.g., "Global
climate change cannot be caused by human burning of fossil fuels, because if it were, switching to nonpolluting energy sources would bankrupt American industry.")
Appeal to emotion
Where an argument is made due to the manipulation of emotions, rather than the use of valid reasoning
Appeal to fear
A specific type of appeal to emotion where an argument is made by increasing fear and prejudice
towards the opposing side.
Appeal to flattery
A specific type of appeal to emotion where an argument is made due to the use of flattery to gather
support.
Appeal to Heaven
(also Deus Vult, Gott mit Uns, Manifest Destiny, the Special Covenant). An extremely dangerous
fallacy (a deluded argument from ethos) of asserting that God (or a higher power) has ordered, supports
or approves one's own standpoint or actions, so no further justification is required and no serious
challenge is possible. (E.g., "God ordered me to kill my children," or "We need to take away your land,
since God [or Destiny, or Fate, or Heaven] has given it to us.") A private individual who seriously

58